2cultures.net(.au)

This ink-wash and watercolour album of birds was produced in Japan in the 19th century.

It bears a 'working title' hinting that it contains Dutch migratory birds, carries an Ex Libris stamp identifying it as belonging to the Katsurakawa^ family (2nd fig. below) and is owned and hosted by the State Library of Berlin. I see everything from eagle, pheasants, parrot species and hawk, to rhinoceros hornbill, egret, pelicans and many other species that escape my fairly ignorant abilities. Is Holland on all of their migratory flight paths? Seems unlikely, so I opted for the fail-proof, vanilla post title of 'Bird Album'.





































































































The 110+ page anonymous sketch album from the 19th century is called オランダ持ち渡り鳥類図帖 (仮題) 3巻 (online translation: 'Netherlands have migratory birds such as Figure Pledge (tentative) Volume 3') is available online via the State Library of Berlin website. [SBB Digital Collection homepage]

These delicate drawings are often outlined in ink and ink-wash and filled in with watercolour to a variable extent. Some of the illustrations are un(der)finished and I wonder if this isn't something of a practice or copy album with published book designs appropriated for Japanese natural scenes. It's all speculation of course. In general the birds are displayed quite realistically and are readily identifiable. I wonder, too, whether in those sketches where non-nondescript backgrounds are seen, if those birds were unfamiliar to the aritist(s).

The images above have all been moderately background cleaned and the colour saturation slightly boosted.

Thanks to @pop_ & @tatsushi_eto & @GingaStation.

"This view looking northwest from Fukagawa Susaki, a spit of land along Edo Bay, toward Jūmantsubo, a tract of land named after its approximate area of one hundred thousand tsubo (about eighty acres), is one of the most dramatic designs of the series. Its appeal lies in the contrast between the powerful form of the eagle as it prepares to dive for prey and the desolate wintry marshes below. As in other views devoid of people, there is still a pervasive human presence—in the roofs huddled to the left, in the poles of the lumber-yards beyond, and, above all, in the lone wooden bucket floating at the edge of the bay, surrounded by water birds on which the eagle seems to have its eye." [source]





"As the full moon rises high in the autumn sky, its rays bathe Saruwaka-machi, the theater district of Edo, with silver light. The moonlight also displays an array of shadows that seem to have a life apart from the gray and black figures that cast them. These shadows are central to the magical quality of this unusual print. Both for Western viewers accustomed to pictures with shadows and for Edo viewers to whom shadows were a curiosity, these particular forms have the similar effect of conjuring up an otherworldly atmosphere." [source]

"Sarukawa-machi was known as a theatre district in Edo (Tokyo). Three official Kabuki theatres on the right side are identified by turrets of boxes known as Yagura, with the crest of approval at the entrance. It is already late in the evening and the theatres are nearly closed, as the tea houses across the road have put on bright lanterns to guide their guests back to the gate. A palanquin waits beside one of the tea houses. At the top of dark sky mika was used to give a glittering impression of the evening sky."[source]





"Hiroshige drew his subject matter from folklore as well as from poetry, literature, and history. This image depicts the legendary explanation for the luminescence known as foxfire, observed at the Inari shrine at Oji. According to folklore, ghostly foxes gathered at the nettle tree near the shrine on New Year's Eve. The number of lights (each one a fox) was thought to predict the abundance of the harvest in the coming year. The nettle tree in the print actually existed and was cut down early in this century." [source]

"In the late 1850s, while Japanese color prints were dominated by themes of the fantastic, Hiroshige emphasized the realities of the observed world in his work. However, here he has ventured into the world of spirits. It was believed that on New Year's Eve all the foxes of the surrounding provinces would gather at a particular tree near Oji Inari Shrine, the headquarters of the regional cult of the god Inari. There the foxes would change their dress for a visit to the shrine, where they would be given orders for the coming year. On the way, the animals would emit distinctive flames by which local farmers were able to predict the crops of the coming year." [source]





"Daybreak had classic associations in Japanese literature with parting lovers, and the scene played out by the four figures at the center of this print is in keeping with that tradition. It is early dawn in the Yoshiwara, the popular licensed pleasure quarters for the Edo demimonde. To the left is a departing guest, his "cheek-cover hood" discreetly in place for the journey home. An attendant to the rear seems anxious to return to bed, while another one with a lantern stands in front of the guest, facing awkwardly away from him and toward the courtesan, who is clad in a bright-red overgarment and wears raised black clogs that mark her high rank." [source]

"From the dark and cold winter to the fresh and sparkling spring. Here Hiroshige has placed the viewers in a strangely evocative zone of transition, as dawn breaks in the Yoshiwara licensed quarter. The cherries, a peculiar Yohiwara’s institution, are in flower. Every year, for the brief duration of their spectacular bloom, they were temporarily transplanted to a raised bed of soil and then whisked away. The place is one of the several side streets leading out into the central avenue. To get out of the Yoshiwara’s enchanted world, one must make a turn: to the left from our point of view, toward Ômon Gate, the one point of entry and departure for visitors. The lead figure we see here is probably going home and therefore heading to the Gate. The smaller figures behind him are: a high rank courtesan wearing raised black clogs and her guest (to the left). The two other figures are two attendants that are escorting the couple through the darkness. Daybreak had classic associations in Japanese literature with parting lovers." [source]





"The "Tama River," actually the Tama River Aqueduct, carried much of the drinking water for the city of Edo along a thirty-mile course. Hiroshige's springtime view vividly conveys a freshness and vitality befitting this lifeline. The cherry trees were planted along much of the embankment in the 1730s. The placement was not only aesthetic but also practical: the trees' roots strengthened the banks, and their petals and leaves were thought to possess antitoxic powers that kept the water pure. [..]

The Tama River Aqueduct shown here was constructed in 1653-54. It carried drinking water for the city of Edo along a 30-mile course, and continued to carry much of the water supply for the city of Tokyo until the 1960's. Then the old Edo wooden system was replaced with modern equipment and this part of the canal, no longer needed, was paved over. The cherry trees along the embankment were planted in the 1730's and were not only a source of beauty, but helped to keep the water pure through the allegedly antitoxic powers of the leaves and petals. To the left is the entrance to one of the smaller samurai estates. In the Edo period, most of this park was the estate of the Naito clan, lords of Takata; subsequently, it served as an agricultural college, a private imperial garden and since 1949 as a public park. The two-story buildings mark the Naito Shinjuku settlement, where one can see a customer and thee "serving girls" as they were known, in the rear quarters of a brothel to the right of the canal." [source]





"The forward guard of a procession of samurai comes strutting up Kinokuni Hill with the Akasaka district in the distance. He wears a stern expression, intent on balancing in the palm of his hand a tufted standard that he would from time to time twirl and toss in the air. Some commentators have faulted Hiroshige for the downhill appearance of this uphill slope, but he is merely setting the stage for the performers. The figures probably belong to one side of a double-file procession, marching in a rhythmic goose step that is only hinted at by their tense posture. [..]

This view shows a daimyo procession marching up Kinokuni Hill, with Akasaka district in the distance. Shown here is only one side of a double file procession. These figures were well known for their performing skills, twirling and tossing these standards, which are seen well balanced in the palms of their hands. The forward guard is wearing a jacket of indigo-dyed "shobu leather," named after the pattern of shobu leaves (seen also in print 64 of the series) on the shoulders. Kinokuni Hill ran outside the estate of the Tokugawa lord of Kinokuni (Kii Province, now Wakayama Prefecture). The Kii estate became Akasaka Detached Palace in the Meiji Period, then was the residence of the emperor until 1888. In 1909 it became a grand Western-style palace that remains there today and is now used as a state guest house. At the lower left is a section of the Outer Moat, known today as Benkeibori. In the far center distance is a fire tower and shogunal firefighter barracks, which today is the Hotel Okura Annex. Behind the procession, in the forest, is one of the estates of Asano of Hiroshima, which in modern times has been a military court, a prison, a barracks, and today is the site of the TBS broadcasting empire. At the far right is another fire tower of another shogunal barracks." [source]





"The entire Kamata area south of Ōmori was known for the cultivation of plum trees and was celebrated more for its early summertime fruits than its springtime blossoms. The gentle beauty of this print tends to distract the viewer from the structure intruding from the right. It is a cushioned palanquin known as a yamakago ("mountain palanquin"), once widely used for travel in Japan. The overgarment left casually on top suggests that a traveler has recently stopped off for a brief rest from the nearby Tokaido highway that linked Edo to Kyoto. [..]

View of the extensive Plum Garden in the Kamata area. The estate which was open to the public complete with teahouses and a restaurant dated from the early Bunsei Period (1818-1830) and came to be known as the "Plum Mansion" (Umeyashiki), with its several hundred trees extending into the distance. The owner of the mansion was a medicine dealer from Omori, whose chief product was a cold remedy called Wachusan. The structure on the right is an indigo cushioned palanquin of the simple A-frame type known as a "yamakago" ("mountain palanquin") and was used widely for travel in Japan, suggesting that a traveler had stopped off from nearby Tokaido for a rest, leaving an over garment on top." [source]





"Although Yatsumi Bridge literally means "Eight-View Bridge," a more accurate translation would be "Eight-Bridge View" since from it one could see eight different bridges, including Yatsumi itself, on which the viewer is standing. This bridge was one of the busiest in Edo and joined the mouth of the Nihonbashi River with the outer moat of Edo Castle. So heavily traveled was the bridge that its southern approach served as the site of a stone post on which notices of lost children were pasted. The only allusion to this bustling site in an otherwise placid scene is the two parasols moving along at the lower left. [..]

A luxuriant willow frames the upper right of the placid scene, its elegant branches drooping low into the composition. Below, two men slowly pole a boat stacked with kindling while solitary fishermen, their boats tied to anchor poles, dip square nets into the shallow water. In the middle distance, Edo Castle stretches the width of the view, and Mount Fuji lies on the horizon with its customary majesty. A pair of swallows gracefully course in the summer sky. If we had actually been standing at the viewpoint Hiroshige has created, we would have experienced a bustle that the artist only alludes to in the two parasols moving across the bridge at the lower left. This is Ichikoku Bridge, one of the busiest in Edo, where the mouth of the Nihonbashi River joined the outer moat of the castle. So heavily traveled was the bridge that its southern approach served as the logical site for a stone post to which notices for lost children were pasted; the post which survived at the site today is dated 1857, one year after Hiroshige's view was published. Yatsumi Bridge, the alternate name of Ichikoku Bridge that is used in the title, literally means "Eight-View Bridge," but it more accurately translated 'Eight-Bridge View," since from this point fully eight different bridges were visible- including the one we are standing on. Two more may be seen in this view - Zenimake Bridge in the foreground and (barely) Dosan Bridge beyond. Out of sight are Tokiwa Bridge to the right , Gofuku and Kaji Bridges to the left, and Nihonbashi and Edobashi Bridges (see print 43 of the series) directly behind us. This scene is utterly transformed today. The moats to left and center have been filled in, and the curve of the Nohinbashi River lies in the shadow of an elevated highway. The purplish horizontal streak in the center of Hiroshige's view is now Marunouchi, Tokyo's central business district. It is hard to believe that it was actually possible to fish here, in the very center of the city." [source]





"The Fukagawa lumberyards, site of part of the huge supply of lumber needed by the world's largest wooden city, were of great economic importance. In early Edo, lumber was kept closer to the center of town. However, in the wake of a fire in 1641 that destroyed not only houses but the lumber needed to rebuild them as well, the government ordered the yards removed to the Fukagawa district. The snow falling on the water here provides one of the brightest images of winter in the series. [..]

After the fire in 1641 which destroyed both houses and the lumber needed to rebuild them, lumberyards were removed to the Fukagawa district, east of the Sumida River, to the place officially named Fukagawa Kiba ("wood place"). In this scene one sees the leaning poles, two sparrows, two loggers, two puppies, and at the bottom, a yellow umbrella which has the "fish mark" of the publisher Uoei. The lumber was transported to and from the Kiba lashed onto rafts and poled by skilled loggers, two of whom are seen here wearing straw capes. The Fukagawa lumberyards survived until the mid 1970's when the land began to subside, obstructing the passage of the lumber boats. Today, much of Tokyo's lumber arrives by ship from all over the world and is then transported by truck. However, Kiba survives as a place name." [source]





"The birds that dominate this scene in the swampy delta area around the village of Sakasai east of Edo have been accorded special attention, with their wing patterns executed in delicate karazuri embossing. Judging from the bushy crests and yellow bills, the birds are Chinese egrets—a species only rarely seen in the summer in Japan. Far more common was the little egret, with no crest and a black bill. The artist naturally preferred the more decorative species, whether it was to be found in the place or not. [..]

The center of attraction here are the Chinese egrets, with their bushy crests and yellow bills, that are shown inhabiting the Nakagawa River. In the distance is a lone cargo boatman and two ferries passing each other near the landing. The Sakasai ferry was named after the neighboring village on the far side and was replaced by a Sakasai Bridge in 1879, the first bridge built across the Nakagawa. The Chinese egrets, shown here, were rarely seen in the summer in Japan and today egrets of any type are rare in this densely settled part of Tokyo." [source]





"The three colorful strips of cloth in the foreground of this print are not celebratory banners but bolts of cloth that dyers have hung out to dry. Hiroshige emphasizes the cloth's materiality by embossing a textured weave pattern on the surface of the white bolt. In the distance stands one of the many fire-watch towers scattered throughout the city. The buildings below were largely devoted to lodging visitors to Edo, maintaining the long-established function of this site as a point of entry and departure for travelers from the north. [..]

Spring scene of the open space known as Hatsune no Baba, located in downtown Edo not far from Asakusa Gate. This space was originally a horse-riding grounds (baba) for practice by the shogun's retainers, the oldest of several such in Edo (see Pl. 115 for another). By Hiroshige's time, however, it no longer played a role in the defense of Edo but was now retained as an idle space in a crowded part of the city, with willows planted around its perimeter. This print provides evidence that dyers from Kon ya-cho, several blocks to the west (see Pl. 75) had taken to using the space for drying their cloth, three blots of which are strung between posts in the foreground. In the background to the left is a watchtower for fires. The buildings below are largely devoted to lodgings for visitors to Edo, maintaining the long-established function of this site at a point of entry and departure along the Oshu highway for travelers from the north. The open area, besides being used for drying newly dyed cloth, was also used at night by nearby match makers for testing the quality of their sulphur. Difficult to see in reproduction is the textured cloth pattern on the white strip of cloth, created by a technique known as nunome-zuri, "fabric-printing." This technique was used frequently in the first paintings of the "One Hundred Famous Views of Edo," most commonly in the title cartouches, but also as here when actual fabric was depicted. It was achieved by pressing a piece of silk into the moistened paper, leaving the pattern of the weave delicately embossed on the surface." [source]





"We can almost hear the swish as the fisherman casts his net out over the Tone River. The stubby lead weights around the edge of the net form a pleasing border to the intricate web within, a masterpiece of carving technique. Through the net is a blurred continuation of the distant shore. The "scattered pines" of the title may be explained by the pine trees on the island at the left, worn and twisted by the wind. The place was popular among fishermen for its carp. [..]

This scene shows a fisherman casting his net, with lead weights around the edge, into the Tone River. The location depicted was known for its carp and the wind twisted pine trees mentioned in the title appear on the shore to the left. In Hiroshige's day, "Tone River" referred to what is now the Edogawa River. It has been suggested that the "Barabaramatsu" in the title referred to more than one place, perhaps various groups of scattered pines along the riverbanks in this region." [source]





"Here we reach the farthest point north in the progression along the Sumida River that began in number 55. The view is from the west bank, looking across to the northeast at the point where the Ayase River flows into the Sumida. This isolated site, called Kanegafuchi, was known for the planting of silk trees, a kind of mimosa, along the bank. Hiroshige has framed the view with one of the trees in full bloom. The silk like filaments that give the tree its name are expressed in light pink lines accented with black. Beyond is a boatman whose bold garment echoes the pattern of the blossoms. [..]

This view looks at the point where the Ayase River flows into the Sumida; due to its curve and convergence with the Ayase, the water here was deeper and the flow more rapid than elsewhere on the Sumida. The story is told of a temple bell which fell into the river during a flood, sinking to the bottom and giving the name Kanegafuchi, "bell depths" for the stretch of the river. This location was also known for its silk trees, a kind of mimosa, growing along the bank. This scene shows one of the trees in full bloom with its silk like pink flowers accented in black. The boatman below is dressed in a bold patterned garment and a heron flies above the reeds. In 1887 the Kanegafuchi Spinning Company was constructed on the south bank of the Ayase River (the area to the far right), a joint venture of five Tokyo cotton-thread dealers, known as "kanebo." In time it became Japan's largest cotton-spinning firm and has since diversified into cosmetics." [source]





"Hiroshige here presents the Yoshiwara pleasure quarters on the single busiest day of the year. However, from the second story of a brothel, the noise and activity seems far away. In the distance, crossing the Asakusa Ricefields, is a procession celebrating the Torinomachi Festival. On this day, the Yoshiwara was open to everyone, including ordinary women. It was also a monbi, one of the special days on which each courtesan was required by tradition to take a customer—or to pay the fee to the brothel owner if she failed. Casually arranged in the foreground are a courtesan's accouterments. Peeping out from behind the border of a screen are tissue papers delicately known as "paper for the honorable act." [..]

This image offers a view from the second story of a Yoshiwara brothel over the Asakusa Ricefields, toward a dense procession of visitors to the Torinomachi Festival, held at Washi Daimyojin Shrine (to the right - not seen here). The god of this shrine is an eagle (washi), popular among those in the entertainment trades. Particularly popular during the festival were "kumade," bamboo rakes decorated with symbols of prosperity offered at the many stalls in and around Washi Shrine. It was the only time ordinary women were allowed to enter the gates to the Yoshiwara. It was also a "monbi," a special day on which each courtesan was required by tradition to take a customer, or pay the fee to the brothel owner if she failed. It was the single busiest day of the year in the Yoshiwara. This scene shows the room of a courtesan who has just had an afternoon customer. He probably brought her as a gift the set of "kumade" hairpins, one of which has been pulled out and admired. On the window sill is a mouth-rinsing bowl and a used towel; to the left is the border of a folding screen decorated with a bird motif, and just above the hairpins is a parcel of tissue papers delicately known as onkotogami, or "paper for the honorable act." In the foreground is an exquisitely detailed cat." [source]





"Hiroshige dramatically interrupts this view from Mount Atago in the district of Shiba southwest of Edo with a figure holding an immense rice paddle. The inscription over the artist's signature to the left identifies the figure as the central actor in the "Heaping Rice Ceremony" performed at the Atago Shrine on the third day of the New Year. In real life, this man was the proprietor of the Atagoya teahouse at the top of Mount Atago. Here however he is dressed in an elaborate costume emblematic of the New Year and of prayers for its bounty. [..]

Scene of the "Messenger of Bishamon" on this third day of the New Year. He is the central actor in the "Heaping Rice Ceremony" performed at the Atago Shrine, dressed in a costume designed for the new year. In real life, he is the proprietor of the Atagoya teahouse at the top of the hill. He wears a ceremonial robe over which are draped strips of kelp which will later be chopped up and according to custom be distributed to shrine believers for the making of a tea guaranteed to ward off colds. He is wearing an upside-down basket on his head, with a citrus fruit and a helmet ornament. Strips of sacred paper are draped from the neck and he is holding an immense rice paddle, all tokens of the martial spirit of Bishamon-ten (one of the four guardian deities of Buddhism as well as one of Japan's Seven Gods of Happiness). At the end of the ceremony, the messenger descends the eighty-six stone steps at the foot of the hill, and greets the clergymen there who are eating from "heaping rice" bowls. Striking his giant paddle, he instructs his audience, "eat, eat." After their reply, "we will, we will," he returns up the steps and re-enters the gate of the shrine. (By custom he was required to walk balanced on high single-toothed clogs.)" [source]





"In the middle distance, a chanting mob of young men carries the sacred palanquin of the Sumiyoshi Shrine through the shallow flats surrounding the island of Tsukudajima. The giant banner in the foreground bears the inscription "Sumiyoshi Daimyōjin," an honorific title of the shrine deities, with the names of donors below. The smaller inscriptions to either side provide the date and the name of the calligrapher, Seikengū Gengyo. This is none other than the poet and artist Baisotei Gengyo, the designer of the Table of Contents for this series. [..]

A group of men are carrying the sacred palanquin of the Sumiyoshi Shrine though the water encircling the island of Tsukudajima, at the mouth of the Sumida River. The tiny island of Tsukudajima was claimed by a group of thirty-four whitebait fishermen in 1645-46 who brought with them the name Tsukuda and their local Sumiyoshi divinity, the protector of mariners and fishermen. The festival commemorating this move was held on the twenty-ninth day of the Sixth Month in 1646 and every third year thereafter - including the year in which this print appeared. The celebration of this festival continues today, although the practice of mizu togyo (carrying the shrine through the water), discontinued in 1963. The giant banner in the center is inscribed in archaic script "Sumiyoshi Daimyojin," and the smaller inscriptions to either side show the date and the name of the calligrapher, Seikengu Gengyo, who is the poet and artist Baisotei Gengyo who designed the Table of Contents for this series. The date on the banner is just one month earlier than the publication of the print itself. The banner still remains in the treasury of the Sumiyoshi Shrine. On the right-hand side is a section of a red festival shrine lantern." [source]





"Here we see a boisterous procession of carpenters, among the most powerful artisans in Edo, a city built of wood. To the left is the great dry-goods house of Daimaru, in the prosperous district of Ōdenma-chō, suggesting the interlocked fortunes of Edo merchants and Edo builders. The shop sign to the upper left bears the slogan "Cash payment, prices as marked." This practice, established in Japan as early as 1683, broke down the traditional class-based relationships between seller and buyer, making all customers equal. [..]

This boisterous procession is called "sending off the master carpenter" (toryo-okuri) and it followed the ridgepole-raising ceremony for a new building. Since most of the structures in Edo were built of wood, fires were frequent, rebuilding was constant, and the carpenters were among the most powerful artisans in the city. The ceremony lasted several hours, beginning with rituals conducted by a Shinto priest on a platform atop the roof of the newly framed structure, on which the symbolic items, seen here on a pole, were displayed. This sacred pole has cloth strips of five colors, paper "gohei" above, in between three fans with the rising sun symbol surrounding a mirror, below women's hair accessories, said to be symbolic of the sacrifice of a young maiden at the beginning of a large building project. Next came two ceremonial "exorcising arrows," and on the arrows are mounted large carvings of the crane and the tortoise, symbols of long life. The chief carpenter is leading the procession and he is followed by the construction bosses, each in mock samurai ceremonial dress. After the rituals, the homeowner provided a banquet with plenty of drink. The marchers, seen with open mouths, are singing a work song. In this prosperous district of Odenma-cho, at left, is the well-known dry goods store Daimaru. The storefront of Daimaru is shown in careful detail, suggesting the idea of mutual prosperity. Daimaru was a branch of a Kyoto establishment, founded in 1717 by Shimomura Hikouemon (whose family name appears on the sign here) and expanded to Edo in 1743. The shop sign to the upper left says "cash payment prices as marked"; marking fixed prices on merchandise was a practice first established in Japan as early as 1683 and Daimaru followed competitively. It has been said that fixed pricing made all customers equal and that an egalitarian mass society had begun to emerge in Edo far earlier than anywhere else in the world. Today Daimaru continues to thrive at its new location, right over the east entrance of Tokyo Station." [source]





"Without the three immense carp banners, this view would have been a classic depiction of samurai Edo, looking southwest over the densest single concentration of samurai households in the city, from Surugadai on the left through Banchō in the distance. The banners and streamers indicate that the time is the Boy's Festival, the fifth day of the Fifth Month. The three carp are standards used by commoners in imitation of the military streamers, which they were prohibited from flying. The banners drew on a Chinese legend of a fish so strong that it could leap a waterfall—an image considered appropriate for young boys. This view thus seems to depict witty merchant-class mimicry of the samurai version of the Boy's Festival. [..]

This view celebrates the Boy's Festival, which takes place the 5th day of the 5th month. The scene looks across the Kanda River, over the expanse of the densest single concentration of samurai in the city, extending from Surugadai on the left through Bancho in the distance. A samurai procession passes over the Suido Bridge in the lower right. The tall banners, known as "fukinagashi" (military streamers) and the vertical "nobori" banners with portraits of Shoki, the Demon Queller of Chinese legend indicate the time is the Boys Festival, the fifth day of the fifth month. It should be noted that the designation of the month "i5"/1857 shown above, indicates that it was an extra or "intercalary" month inserted to let the calendar catch up. It was a practice for each of the samurai households to fly the banners shown here, celebrating a boy of age six or seven. The three large carps, by contrast, are marks of the "choinin" city and were used by comers for the Boys Festival imitating the military "fukinagashi," which they were prohibited from flying. According to Chinese legend, the paper and later silk carps signify a fish so strong and persistent that it could leap a waterfall. As noted in the Introduction to this series, Hiroshige himself was of samurai origin, a genuine hereditary retainer of the shogun, qualified to wear two swords and to hold formal office within a bakufu fire brigade until age thirty-six. The center shows a black free-standing fire tower. Hiroshige was undoubtedly familiar with this part of town." [source]





"This print depicts a fascinating array of customs. In the immediate foreground are three samurai, identifiable by their double swords but unusual for their Western pants, a recent import popular among younger samurai. The identical parasols, uneven procession, and diverse dress of the women ahead mark them as a group of merchant-class tourists. They are on their way to view the cherry blossoms hinted at by the rosy-tinged cloud in the distance. [..]

Busy street looking down a long row of shops with a detailed depiction of one particular store, in this case, the silk store "Ito Matsuzakaya" and two delivery men bearing large packs with the shop crest. The site today is still occupied by Matsuzakaya, which like Mitsukoshi (pl. 8) has become one of Tokyo's major department stores. The subway stop in front is now called Ueno Hirokoji, and the tradition of a broad pedestrian space continues in contemporary Tokyo. In the immediate foreground there is a group of three samurai, identified by their two swords but unusual in the Western pants they wear; these were a recent import that spread rapidly among younger samurai for their distinctive style and ease of movement. (This series was begun three years after Admiral Perry "opened" Japan.) A large group of women carrying red parasols are probably students at some school of chanting or dancing, on their way to view the cherry blossoms at Kan'eiji, followed by a group of men carrying the appropriate refreshments. The small building just to the right of the head of the procession is a barbershop, where class status was marked above all by hair style. A bank of stylized clouds, comparable to the clouds in the preceding print, hangs over the forested mass of the temple beyond." [source]





"Senju Great Bridge was originally known as the Great Bridge as it was the only bridge over the Sumida River, (known here as the Arakawa River - or even more locally as the Senju River) until the Ryogoku Bridge was completed in 1661. Senju Great Bridge was not only the first bridge across the Sumida but it also survived the longest, due to its sturdy construction and rot-resistant timber supplied by the lord of Sendai, the most powerful daimyo to use the bridge regularly. Senju Great Bridge, built in 1594, finally washed away in the great flood of 1885. The buildings on the far side of the river are part of the Senju settlement, the first official post town on the road to the north. It was one of Edo's four post stations, together with Shinagawa (shown in print 83 of this series), Naito Shinjuku (print 86), and Itabashi. The mountain in the distance is thought to be Mount Buko." [source]





"It is a hot summer day in the middle of the Main Street of Edo in the bustling Nihonbashi district, and almost everyone hides under a hat or a parasol, intent on avoiding the sun. Under a huge two-tiered parasol is a group of dancers who performed celebratory shrine dances for donations. Called Sumiyoshi dancers because of their origin as seasonal minstrels from Sumiyoshi Shrine near the city of Osaka, they had evolved by Hiroshige's time into native Edo street performers. Following them is a different sort of street minstrel, from the outcast hinin class. Such women sang songs accompanied by the samisen, a lute-like instrument, and were always escorted at a distance by a husband or a father. [..]

This scene is in the middle of the main street in Edo, on a hot summer day; most of the people are under hats or parasols to escape the sun. The older man on the right is eating a yellow Makuwa melon and beyond him to the left, a delivery boy is almost hidden by his tray load of noodle boxes from the sboa shop Tokyoan (the white noren in center). A group of Sumiyoshi dancers are under a huge two-tiered parasol. Originally, the Sumiyoshi dancers were seasonal minstrels from Sumiyoshi Shrine, near Osaka, who would perform celebratory shrine dances in return for donations. The five dancers here are wearing their costumes of straw materials, red aprons, white fans and sedge hats, topped by the blue parasol with red shashes and white "gohei." Following the dancers is a female street minstrel, the "onna-dayu," who along with others would sing to shamisen accompaniment. The onna-dayu were from the outcast "hinin" class and were always followed at a distance by a husband or father. It was suggested by Miyao Shigeo that this woman following the Sumiyoshi dancers might be their samisen accompanist. The street scene here is the cotton sellers district, occupied by merchants from the Omi region. The Sumiyoshi dancers were traditionally dressed in cotton; the onna-dayu were prohibited by class barriers from wearing silk but were known for their stylish cotton kimonos, as seen here, closely fitted and wearing high "geta" clogs. The large store to the right is Shirokaya, founded in 1662 and one of Tokyo's great modern department stores, now part of a Tokyo chain." [source]





"Two well-dressed ladies disembark from the boat by which they have traveled up the Sumida River into the inlet known as Uchigawa. Their destination is one of Edo's famous suburban restaurants, seen in the upper right. Located within the precincts of Mokuboji Temple, which lies out of sight to the right, it specialized in dishes of taro and clams and was much prized among stylish residents of Edo. The area to the left with pines was known as Gozensaihata, or "The Honorable Vegetable Garden." Beginning in the 1650s, fresh vegetables for the shogun's table were produced there. It is unclear, however, if that practice still continued in Hiroshige's day. [..]

Two ladies are seen alighting from the boat in Uchigawa Inlet on their way to one of Edo's famous suburban restaurants, known as Uehan (named after the owner, Uekiya Han'emon) which specialized in taro and clams. The nearby Mokuboji Temple, not shown here, originated in the year 976 when a young boy (Umewaka) was kidnapped by a slave trader when he lost his way on the road near Kyoto and was brought here, where he finally died of sickness and exhaustion on the banks of the Sumida River. A wandering priest erected a mound in his memory, which grew into the shrine-temple complex of Mokuboji. The mound survives today and services in his memory are held each year on April 15. The area on the left by the pine trees was known as Gozensaihata, or "the honorable vegetable garden," which produced fresh vegetables for the shogun's table. This area was obliterated by bombing during World War II; both sides of the Sumida have been leveled and construction has begun to provide high-rise housing and emergency evacuation in case of flood or earthquake. Mokuboji was relocated to a site closer to the Sumida in the middle of what was once the mouth of the Uchigawa Inlet." [source]





"Of the two attractions mentioned in the title, the Drum Bridge was the more celebrated site in the Meguro area. Arched bridges were unusual enough in Edo, but even more curious was a stone bridge, which offered few advantages in a city prone to earthquakes. Rounded forms and stone structures were more common in China than in Japan, suggesting a Chinese prototype for this bridge, although it is said to have been designed in the 1740s by a wandering priest inspired by a similar one in Kyushu, Japan. Hiroshige evokes a greater sense of isolation, even loneliness, in this snow scene by offering an oblique view. [..]

A view of the famous drum bridge in the valley of the Meguro River, the main route to the shrine of Meguro Fudo (not seen here and one of the few shrines not shown in this series). Arched, stone bridges were unusual in Edo, as they did not withstand earthquakes well, and this type of structure was more common in China than Japan. By 1919, this bridge was replaced by a steel structure, which although flat, does have an arch shape in the railings. On the left, the road leads up a steep slope known as Gyoninzaka, named after a wandering ascetic (gyonin) who founded the temple of Daienji on the side of the hill. The slope leading down from Meguro Station still survives today. The Sunset Hill of the title is shown at the left and was once known for its brilliant maple trees, although they had disappeared before this print was published. The hill has been the site of Gajoen, a large hotel and banquet palace, since 1931. This print portrays particular skill in depicting snow accumulation on the tree branches. The coming spring might be suggested by the use of green bokashi on the title cartouche." [source]





"Here we see a boisterous procession of carpenters, among the most powerful artisans in Edo, a city built of wood. To the left is the great dry-goods house of Daimaru, in the prosperous district of Ōdenma-chō, suggesting the interlocked fortunes of Edo merchants and Edo builders. The shop sign to the upper left bears the slogan "Cash payment, prices as marked." This practice, established in Japan as early as 1683, broke down the traditional class-based relationships between seller and buyer, making all customers equal. [..]

This boisterous procession is called "sending off the master carpenter" (toryo-okuri) and it followed the ridgepole-raising ceremony for a new building. Since most of the structures in Edo were built of wood, fires were frequent, rebuilding was constant, and the carpenters were among the most powerful artisans in the city. The ceremony lasted several hours, beginning with rituals conducted by a Shinto priest on a platform atop the roof of the newly framed structure, on which the symbolic items, seen here on a pole, were displayed. This sacred pole has cloth strips of five colors, paper "gohei" above, in between three fans with the rising sun symbol surrounding a mirror, below women's hair accessories, said to be symbolic of the sacrifice of a young maiden at the beginning of a large building project. Next came two ceremonial "exorcising arrows," and on the arrows are mounted large carvings of the crane and the tortoise, symbols of long life. The chief carpenter is leading the procession and he is followed by the construction bosses, each in mock samurai ceremonial dress. After the rituals, the homeowner provided a banquet with plenty of drink. The marchers, seen with open mouths, are singing a work song. In this prosperous district of Odenma-cho, at left, is the well-known dry goods store Daimaru. The storefront of Daimaru is shown in careful detail, suggesting the idea of mutual prosperity. Daimaru was a branch of a Kyoto establishment, founded in 1717 by Shimomura Hikouemon (whose family name appears on the sign here) and expanded to Edo in 1743. The shop sign to the upper left says "cash payment prices as marked"; marking fixed prices on merchandise was a practice first established in Japan as early as 1683 and Daimaru followed competitively. It has been said that fixed pricing made all customers equal and that an egalitarian mass society had begun to emerge in Edo far earlier than anywhere else in the world. Today Daimaru continues to thrive at its new location, right over the east entrance of Tokyo Station." [source]





"The title of this print lists three different villages northwest of the Yoshiwara pleasure quarters. The names that appear first probably represent the nearest places in the view. This would mean that it is a scene looking from Minowa and Kanasugi toward Mikawashima, to the west or northwest. Mikawashima was where the shogun's Crane Hunt occurred almost every year during the winter months, when cranes migrated to Japan. The auspicious nature of the crane made it an important ceremonial gift. Aside from the one or two birds taken on each hunt, the cranes of Mikawashima were carefully protected, as Hiroshige has depicted: the figure in the background is carrying buckets filled with rice with which to feed them. [..]

The title of this print lists the names of three different villages in an area northwest of the Yoshiwara and is most likely looking from Minowa and Kanasugi toward Mikawashima. Mikawashima is the site of the shogun's crane hunt in the winter, when cranes migrate to Japan. The shogun, in the company of seventy or eighty others, would release the first hawk; a crane was then captured and lashed to bamboo poles and taken to Kyoto to be presented to the emperor. Cranes were considered extremely auspicious birds, and yet they were hunted and eaten, at least on this special occasion. The crane shown here is the Japanese crane, called "tancho," or "red-crest" after the bald red spot on its head. Today only a few hundred of these protected birds survive in eastern Hokkaido. The tancho has pure white feathers, depicted by a blind-printed pattern on the backs of the birds; the blackening near the shoulders of the upper bird might be from the effects of the atmosphere on white lead pigment." [source]

---

• The print sampling above was sourced from Japan's National Diet Library which houses - in my opinion - the best quality and largest image files of Hiroshige's '100 Famous Views of Edo' available online (Edo is an earlier name for Tokyo). {The images can be found by clicking on an arrow in the sidebar, top left of that page; translating the page and then the image pages is the simplest path through the set at any rate}
• There are a number of editions available on Amazon.
• There are other online image sets at Brooklyn Musuem (from which most of the quoted commentary above comes), Flickr, Wikipedia, and various other sites have varying numbers of prints from this popular series.
• Ando Hiroshige | Ando Hiroshige Prints | Ukiyo-e woodblock prints.
• Previously: Japan ~~ Printing.
• Just by the by, a single signed print from the series sold 4 years ago for $10,000.
• The images above were cropped back to the page margins and uploaded at about one half the size available on NDL's site.

The (translated) list of anthropomorphic fables in this Benjamin Rabier-illustrated version of Florian's original 18th century children's tales:
The cat and the mirror - Beef horse and donkey - Carp and carpillons - The cowboy and the gamekeeper - The Cat and the bezel - The blind and the lame - Mother the child and opossums - The Mole and rabbits - the sheep and the dog - The Cricket - The monkey magic lantern shows - The brouvreuil and raven - The young and the old hen fox - The child and the mirror - Two cats - horse and foal - The hedgehog and rabbit - The Phoenix - The cat and the sparrow - The linnet - The fox preaches - monkeys and leopard - Wild boar and nightingales - The rhinoceros and camel - The squirrel, the dog and the fox - Hare, her friends and two deer - Peacock, both goslings and diving - the monkey, the monkey and nuts - fox disguised - The owl, cat, rat and goose - The parrot confident - The snake and leech - The Parrot - The cats and rats - both farmers and the cloud - Leopard and squirrel - The lion and leopard - The dog - The donkey and the flute - The rabbit and Teal - The crocodile and sturgeon - The wasp bee - The warbler and nightingale.

Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian (1755-1794) was a French poet, romance and comedy writer, fabulist and pastoral novelist. He was elected to the Académie Française in 1788. Florian is best remembered for his children's fable verses, drawing from both traditional sources such Aesop as well as his own imagination.

Florian was arrested and imprisoned during the French Revolution and managed to avoid the guillotine during Robespierre's Reign of Terror. However, he died a year later at 39 years of age from an illness while still in jail.

Florian's most famous line might well be:
"Rira bien qui rira le dernier" or "He who laughs last, laughs best!"

• The images above, from 'Fables de Florian / Illustrées par Benjamin Rabier' (1936), are hosted online by Rosalis, Bibliothèque Numérique de Toulouse.
• From the same source & same illustrator on BibliOdyssey a couple of months ago: Le Buffon Choisi: this post has more background on the illustrator and further links.
• Agence Eureka has many Rabier posts.
• Wonderful Japanese illustrations of the Florian Fables from 1895: Volume One & Volume Two.
• Fables de Florian pour lire, en Français.
• Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian et les fables [trans.]
• At the Internet Archive: 'Fables de Florian : avec des notes par madame Amable Tastu ; suivies d'un choix de fables de nos meilleurs fabulistes' (1845) {steel engravings by Bertrand}
• http://www.benjaminrabier.com/
• Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian at Wikipedia.

"While one reflects on those many and frequent Accidents, which thro' want of Swimming daily happen amongst us: Every one is ready to complain of the unhappiness of Man in that respect, in comparison of other Animals, to whom Nature has indulg'd that faculty, which he ought to enjoy in a more excellent degree, since it is so necessary to his Preservation.

But if we thoroughly consider the business, we shall find nothing more unreasonable than that complaint, since without doubt Man would not only Swim naturally like other Creatures, but also in more Perfection, and with more Variety, both for Pleasure and Advantage; otherwise there would not so many acquit themselves that way with such and admirable dexterity and address, as we daily see, which sufficiently demonstrates, that Man has naturally all those Dispositions which are requisite and necessary for it. [..]

This Art, which may be numbered among the Mechanick ones, since it is performed by Motion, and the Agitation of the Hands and Feet, has been hitherto exercised rather by a rude Imitation, than the Observation of any Rules or Precepts, by reason no on has taken the pains to reduce it to any; although it has always sufficiently deserved it, by the great advantages it brings to those who possess it, and in general to all Civil Societies, the consideration whereof ought to have made Men study to render it more easy to be learned, and more familiar to all men, since they may have so great occasion for it. [..]

To mention some few advantages of Swimming. In case of Shipwreck, if one is not very far from Shore, the Art of Swimming may set one safe there, and to save from being drowned. In case of being pursu'd by an Enemy, and meeting a River in ones way, you have the advantage of escaping two sorts of Death, by gaining the Shore on the other side, and so escaping from your Enemy, and from being drowned in the attempt of doing it.

But a good Swimmer may not only preserve his own Life, but several others also. An open vessel on the main sea, in a Storm may be kept from sinking by a good Diver; Or having lost her Anchors and Cables, and being ready to be cast on the Shore, may by him be haled thither, and avoid being dashed against the Rocks, and so the Lives of all in it saved; and the occasions of being thus helpful are only too frequent, as those who are used to the Seas very well know. By the same means one may attack an Enemy posted on the adverse sides of Rivers, and thereby sometimes gain a Victory. [..]

Before you go into the water, you ought to see that it be clear, that there be no scum or froth on the surface, what sort of bottom it has, that there be no weeds or mud, for one's feet may be entangled among the weeds, or one may sink into the mud, and the water coming over one's head, remain there, and be drowned.

Something yet remains to be observed before you enter into the water, in regard to stripping yourself. If you sweat when you come to the place you have chosen; or if you have sweat some time before you came, and are not quite cooled, you ought to strip by degrees, and that by walking to and fro on the shore, so that you may recover a good temperature, and by thus gradually stripping, the pores have leisure to close, and the body become in good condition, to be exposed to the air without any detriment to the health. After which you may enter into the water, and Swim according to the following precepts."

Melchisédec Thévenot in the introduction to 'L'Art de Nager' (1696), as it appeared in the 1699 translation, 'The Art of Swimming'.

"There are some who after a short Race fling themselves into the Water on their Right or Left side, as in Figure 4. Others taking several Leaps towards the Bank of the River, at last Leap in with their Feet foremost, Body upright, meeting the Water first with their Buttocks and Calves of their Legs, as in figure 5. This way is very safe and the best of all."



"Those who don't know how to Swim, ought to enter by degrees, and gently into the Water; but those who are expert oftentimes leap in all at once with their Feet perpendicular to the Bottom, as is represented in the first Figure."



"Expert Swimmers can do whatever they please in the water; they can walk there, stand still upright, or lye [lie] still or sit down. To sit, you must take both your Legs in your Hands, draw in your Breath, and so keep your Breast inflated; your Head upright, and lifting up successively your Arms and Legs by that motion sustain your self."



"By this way you remain upright in the water without making any motion with the hands, only you move the water round with your Legs from you, the Soals [soles] of your Feet being perpendicular to the bottom; you may make use of this if you are cast into the water bound hand and foot."



"It is possible to perform actions in the Water, which one cannot do on Land; I my self have often brought my Great Toe to my Lips in the Water, which I could never do on Land, not on my bed. You must hold your knife in your right hand (if you are right-handed) and take up your left Leg, and lay the Foot on the right Knee; there you make take if from the left hand, and with the right cut your Nails without any danger. Thus you may also pick your Toes; and if this way has no other use or advantage, yet the dexterity of the management may serve to recommend it."



"This way seems difficult, though it imitates the Posture they say is natural to Man, to look upwards; and if we knew how to make use of it, there would not be so many drowned as there daily are; for that happens, because, instead of looking upwards, they look downwards with their heads towards the bottom, and embrace the water, as it were with their arms, insomuch that one might say they did all they could on purpose to drown themselves.

If they would place themselves on their backs, and keep their bodies extended, they might easily escape, nay could not sink themselves in that posture if they would; this we find attested by experience; and I never yet met with any diver that could possibly descend in that posture, that is, with the head erect towards Heaven; and if they had a mind to it, they found themselves first obliged to elevate their arms upright to contract their thorax or breast; and when all this is done, find it very difficult to sink, though very slowly, and always come to the bottom with their feet first."



"This is easily performed in the manner following. You must keep your Breast advancing forward, your Neck upright on the water, both your Hands fast behind your Head, or on your Back, while in the mean time your Legs and Thighs push you forward by the same motions you make when you Swim (as at other times) on your Belly. This way of Swimming may be useful, in case any accident, as the Cramp, &c. should happen to your Arms, or if you were forced on occasion to Swim with your Hands tyed behind you, on in case you were a Prisoner, and your Life or Liberty depended on it."



"Suppose you Swim on your Back, or Belly, lower of sink your left side, and at the same time elevate your right one. In Swimming, when you are thus laid, move your left hand as often as you see convenient, without either separating it far from your Body, or sinking it, perpetually striking it out and retracting it, as in a right line on the surface of the water. Besides the pleasure of swimming thus, you may also find an advantage by viewing as you please either side of a River, and that one side may rest while the other is employ'd."



"While you Swim on your Back it is easie (easy) to put your hands to what use you please, but it is difficult to hold them upright, and Swim at the same time too. It would appear at first sight as if this were the most easy method we have yet taught. You must take care lest while you lift up your arms, the thorax or breast be not contracted, for so you sink. The whole art of this way of Swimming consists in heaving up the breast as high, and keeping it inflated as much as possible, while your arms are held up."



"When Swimmers go to search for any thing in the water, they Swim round about the place where the thing was cast in, if they do not find it immediately; by this sort of address they can take up any the least thing that is at the bottom.

The manner of making this compass or circle is thus: if you would begin in the Circle from the right hand, and end it at the left, you must grasp or embrace the water with both your hands from the right to the left, and exactly contrary if you would turn the other way; but when you have Dived perpendicularly down, and can't find what you went to seek, you will be obliged to take such a compass, but don't go so far as to lose the light; for when once that begins to fail you, it is a sign that you are either too deep, or under a Boat, or Shore, or something else that intercepts the light.

You must always take heed of venturing into such places; and if you should find yourself so engaged, call to mind whereabouts, or which way you came thither, and turn back the same way, looking upwards for the light: for you may see it a great way off: above all, take heed you don't go to breathe under water: In case you are afraid of any Enemy that should lay wait for you when you come up again, you must have recourse to the Agility of the Dolphin."




"You cannot easily imagine how this manner of Swimming is performed, it is indeed very surprising. By this means you may stand upright in the water though never so deep, without fear of sinking.

To make you comprehend it, you are to remember that when you Swim on your back, you lye still, your Legs being extended: When you find yourself in that posture, you must let your legs go down, or sink; and when they come to be perpendicular to the bottom, you must take them up again, bending your knees, inflating your Breast, and as to the Arms and Hands whereof the back-parts lye flat on the water by the shoulders, you must sometimes extend them on the one side, sometimes on the other, sometimes shut them, turning the Palms towards the bottom, the fingers close to one another, holding your Chin upright as possible.

This way which seems so surprising, is sometimes very useful; suppose at any time, the Ice should happen to break under your Feet, this way will be of vast advantage to secure yourself from the danger. It may also be very advantageous in case a man is obliged to save himself from some enemy pursuing, by leaping into the water in a dark night; for in that case, one may wait, without making any noise, till he is passed by, then go again on shore."



"I call this way by the name of Booting or drawing on ones Boots, because the action very much resembles a Man doing so. You must first lift up one leg out of the water, and afterwards the other, and take the foot in your hands as those do who are drawing on their boots, and presently after let it go again, exending it out at length. The management of this way consists in keeping up your breast as high as you can, and as much inflated as possible, and also the one leg up out of the water while the other is continually playing downwards. This way may be very commodious for cleaning your Feet from mud."



"This is proper for those who leap off from any height into the water, as from a Bridge or Ship: This is performed by taking a little leap forwards, and sometimes upwards, that your descent may be more perpendicular, or swifter to the bottom, and also that your head may go perpendicularly downwards. This way is very Commodious, when you have a very deep water, and it cannot be performed after any more ready method, because of the difficulty of holding ones breath."



"After you are at bottom, you may return with the same facility; which is performed much after the same way as we have taught before, to turn ones self in the water; the person who swims with one of his hands extended, must push from him the water before him with the palm, and with the cavity of the other palm drawing the water that is behind him, towards him; when your hand is extended as far as it can be, the fingers of the hand so extended, and the palm of that turned outwards, ought to shut or clench: the perfection of this way you'll see [..]."



"If Men sink to the bottom of the water, it is their own fault, nature has laid no necessity on 'em doing so; nay there is not only occasion for force and strength to come thither, but also Art to do is safely, speedily and handsomely, but those that are expert at Swimming do it, on occasion, as swift as an Arrow, and descend perpendicularly or obliquely as they please."



"This manner shews at once four parts of the Body, viz. the Head, the two Elbows, and one Knee... Besides the management of this method, and the difficulty of doing it well, it is serviceable to rest your self by putting on Thigh across the other, and to take breath where the water is so deep that you cannot reach the bottom."



'The Art of Swimming. Illustrated by proper figures. With advice for bathing. By Monsìeur Thevenot. Done out of French. To which is prefixed a prefatory discourse concerning artificial swimming, or keeping ones self above water by several small portable engines, in cases of danger'



On 'the history of swimming', in literature:

"Although Nicolaus Wynman wrote the first book on swimming, 'Colymbetes, Sive de Arte Natandi et Festivus et Iucundus Lectu' (Swabia, 1538), an earlier book, 'The Boke Named the Governour' by Sir Thomas Elyot (London, 1531), briefly discussed swimming as an important part of the education of gentlemen.

But it was Wyman's book, 'Colymbetes', that first instructed Europeans that the human stroke was the stroke 'which all must learn as the scientific stroke'. 'Colymbetes' is a little book in crabbed Latin, full of abbreviations and mistakes or misprints. Wynman, a German professor at Ingolstadt University, mentioned that the cogent reason for not learning to swim had been the mistaken belief that the souls who are confined to hell have to cross the river Styx by swimming. If they cannot swim, how would they cross?

Within the next 50 years, two more books of note followed. 'Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus Romae' (History of the Northern People) by Olaus Magnus was published in Rome in 1555 and discussed swimming among other leading customs of northern people. The other book was 'De Arte Natandi' (The Art of Swimming) by Sir Everard Digby, published in England in 1587 but written in Latin because it was considered vulgar in certain quarters to write in English. Both books advocated breaststroke in preference to the more primitive forms of swimming that existed at the time.

Had Digby written in his own language, as Elyot did, his book would have sold better and also been too well known to have been so readily plagiarized or translated without permission. As it was, Digby's work was translated three times: twice into English and once into French. The French edition was translated into German, Spanish and Italian. An abbreviated translation of Digby's work was published in 1595 by Middleton. Another, published in 1658, professing to be the original, was an almost literal translation by Percey, who claimed it to be his own work.

Next, Melchisédec Thévenot translated Digby's original Latin work, 'De Arte Natandi', into French, and it was published in Paris under the title 'L'Art de Nager' in 1696, four years after Thévenot's death. In 1699, 'The Art of Swimming', translated back into English from 'L'Art de Nager', was published in London, the translator never suspecting that Thévenot was not the original author because Thévenot was always given credit for it. Even that great scholar, Benjamin Franklin, who got to the root of most things he touched, quotes Thévenot without the slightest suspicion that the original author was English.

Thévenot described swimming 'as an old sport which hitherto had not received the invesigation necessary to improve in efficiency'. During Thévenot's time, breaststroke was still considered the scientific stroke in Europe. Thévenot's book was regarded as the authoritative work on 'scientific swimming', as it was called then, and was reprinted in 1764 and 1772.

In recognition of Thévenot's perceived preeminence among swimming authors during a century when swimming was considered a health hazard, Thévenot was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1990, nearly 300 years after his translation of Digby's work had been published. Although Thévenot was a recognized scholar in many fields, a stronger case can be made for Digby's inclusion in the International Swimming Hall of Fame. [..]

The more recent evolution of swimming in Western culture is ably recorded by several outstanding authorities, and especially so in the classic descriptions by Steedman (1867), Wilson (1883), Sinclair and Henry (1903) and Carlile (1963)."

Quote (very slightly abbreviated) from 'Breakthrough Swimming' by Cecil Colwin, 2002 {Amazon | Google} - note that this historical section seems to be a scanned inclusion and may, or may not, be by Colwin himself.

Maggs Bros. has a copy of 'The Art of Swimming' for £2600:

"Although this work is translated from Thevenot's 'L'Art de Nager' work the text is derived one of the earliest books to appear on the subject, Everard Digby's 'De Arte Natandi' (London, 1578) "whereof I have here made some use" as Thevenot admits in the preface. Digby's text was "gathered" or adapted into English by Christopher Middleton as 'A Shorte Introduction for to Learne to Swim' (London, 1595). William Percey's 'The Compleat Swimmer' (London, 1658) is also adapted from Digby's text, although without acknowledgement.The charming plates are careful reversed copies from the first edition of Thevenot's version (Paris, 1696) which were derived in turn from the woodcuts in Digby's 1578 text and illustrate how to enter the water, dive, perform a number of strokes or maneouvres such as "the Leap of the Goat" and "the Agility of the Dolphin", float and even how to cut one's toenails while floating. Thevenot was the first to describe the breaststroke which was to become the most common stroke for centuries."

• All the images above are screenshots and those with black borders were spliced together from a few screenshots. Some staining has been removed or reduced in the background. The images come from *Capital Collections - The Image Library of Edinburgh City Libraries and Museums and Galleries* - I am grateful to the Edinburgh Libraries Twitter account @TalesofOneCity for inadvertently pointing out this site. [Capital Collections homepage]
• The Wellcome Library hosts more than 40 modest-sized woodcut illustrations from 'De Arte Natandi' (1587) by Everard Dibgy. (the book translated by Thévenot from which the illustrations above were derived)
• Wikipedia biography: "Melchisédech Thévenot (1620-1692) was a French author, scientist, traveler, cartographer, orientalist, inventor, and diplomat. He was the inventor of the spirit level and is also famous for his popular 1696 book The Art of Swimming, one of the first books on the subject.."
• De Anza College History of Swimming section.
• The History of Swimming [W]
• One suggestion that appears in some of the online commentary about Thévenot is that he was a well renowned scholar and the fact that his French translation of Digby's work appeared 4 years after his death (and the English edition 3 years after that) suggests that Thévenot himself was probably not responsible for the active plagiarism of Digby's work. Thévenot quite likely did the translation for his own betterment or as an academic exercise, as it were, and other, less than scrupulous people, exploited this later on.
• Googlebooks has a scan of the 3rd Ed. of 'The Art of Swimming' - the text quotes above come from here (I somehow have a pdf copy of this version which was supplied to the Google maw by the John Johnson Collection | Bodleian Libraries at Oxford University). And my apologies to anyone aggrieved by the non-appearance of the long-ſ; it was omitted by accident from copy/pasting an initial ſ-less section, and then it was a matter of staying consistent.

'Currus triumphales ad adventum clarissimorum Moschoviae principum Pauli Petrovitz et Mariae Theodorownae conjugis regali ornandum spectaculo in Divi Marci venetiarum foro die 24. Januarii anno MDCCLXXXII..' (pub. 1782) by Giorgio and Domenico Fossati is available online through Yale University's Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.

This very small album (an Italian Festival Book - all the engravings are shown above) commemorates the 1782 entrance into Venice by Crown Prince Paul Petrovich (son of Catherine the Great) and his 2nd wife, Sophia Dorothea of Württemberg (called Maria Feodorovna after the marriage). [W]


I am grateful to arch nemesis, Will 50Watts Schofield, for alerting me to, or reminding me about, the wonderful new(?) digital site and viewing architecture available via Beinecke Library. He found his own level of book to display from there yesterday. But seriously, do yourself a favour and go for a wander around Beinecke's digital collections.

Previously: Festival